Beijing Central Axis: A Building Ensemble Exhibiting the Ideal Order of the Chinese Capital

On July 27, 2024, at 11:15 AM local time, the 46th session of the World Heritage Committee in New Delhi, India, passed a resolution to inscribe Beijing Central Axis on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The Chinese nomination, entitled "The Central Axis of Beijing—A Building Ensemble Exhibiting the Ideal Order of the Chinese Capital," was approved as a single entry, encompassing all proposed elements. With this inscription, the total number of World Heritage sites in China rose to 59, making it a global leader in this regard. 

The Beijing Central Axis covers a total length of 7.8 kilometers and consists of 15 distinct heritage elements. It begins in the north with the Bell and Drum Towers, extending southward over Wanning Bridge and Jingshan Hill. It continues through the Forbidden City, the Upright Gate, Tiananmen Gate, and the Outer Jinshui Bridges. It then traverses the Tiananmen Square Complex, and passes through Zhengyangmen Gate, and along the remains of original central axis roads, before culminating in Yongdingmen Gate in the south. Flanking the eastern and western sides of the Axis are several important sacrificial sites: the Imperial Ancestral Temple, the Altar of Land and Grain, the Temple of Heaven, and the Altar of the God of Agriculture.

These heritage components encompass five distinct categories of historical remains: imperial palaces and gardens, imperial sacrificial structures, ancient urban management facilities, national ceremonial and public buildings, and remains of original central axis roads. The Central Axis connects grand ceremonial sites with vibrant commercial areas, creating a cityscape defined by a sense of rhythm and order. Featuring an undulating north-south profile and symmetrical east-west layout, it offers a prime example of the traditional central axis of a Chinese capital in the mature stage, comprising an ensemble of buildings and sites that govern the overall layout of the old city of Beijing.

The historical evolution of Beijing Central Axis

The concept of the central axis has deep historical roots in traditional Chinese capital design. As early as the pre-Qin era (before 221 BC), city planning systems were already governed by a north-south axial layout. As social productivity advanced, national capitals expanded in both scale and functionality. The concept of the central axis also continued to evolve with the construction of successive capitals: Daxing of the Sui Dynasty (581–618), Chang'an of the Tang Dynasty (618–907), Dongjing of the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), and Zhongdu of the Kin Dynasty (1115–1234).

The Central Axis of Beijing was first established during the Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368). It matured and expanded through the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1616–1911) dynasties and underwent continual development and preservation into the modern era. As the result of over seven centuries of construction, it has become the ultimate embodiment of the unique architectural order of Beijing's old city.

Beijing Central Axis, originating in the 13th century and taking shape in the 16th century, runs through the old city of Beijing from north to south. Spanning 7.8 kilometers, it stands as the longest urban axis in the world today. BEIJING MUNICIPAL CULTURAL HERITAGE BUREAU

Between 1267 and 1405, the location and basic form of Beijing Central Axis were determined. Between 1406 and 1564, the overall layout of the Central Axis was largely established, with the city walls taking a convex shape similar to the Chinese character 凸 (tu). The imperial palaces and gardens, sacrificial structures, and ancient urban management facilities all date back to this period. Between 1565 and 1911, the overall layout of Beijing Central Axis was both preserved and extended. During the Qianlong era of the Qing Dynasty (1736–1796), adjustments and enhancements to Beijing's layout further enriched and reinforced the architectural order of the Central Axis. From 1912 onward, the ceremonial spaces that once served imperial authority were turned into public spaces open to all. Following the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, further planning and construction were carried out on Tiananmen Square, reinforcing the central and symmetrical layout of the Central Axis. Today, the Central Axis continues to play a governing role in Beijing's urban development, serving as the foundational line for city planning. 

The northern section of Beijing Central Axis extends from the Bell and Drum Towers to the southern end of Di'anmen Outer Street. With their scale and height, these towers stand in contrast to the surrounding relatively low-lying buildings, a dense collection of traditional gray brick and tile courtyards. The thriving commercial buildings south of the Bell and Drum Towers clearly define the dimensions of the central road, creating a vibrant streetscape teeming with life. Along this road, the Wanning Bridge crosses over the Yuhe River, adding a gentle and moderating quality to this section.

Further south, the northern-central section is dominated by the imperial palaces, gardens, and sacrificial buildings from the Ming and Qing dynasties. The imperial palaces and gardens are located on the Central Axis itself. The Forbidden City lies in the south, encircled by the Inner Jinshui River, and Jingshan Hill sits in the north, its hilly terrain and lush greenery serving as the backdrop to the palaces. To the south, the Meridian Gate, Upright Gate, and Tiananmen Gate form an imposing sequence, creating a rigorously structured landscape. The Imperial Ancestral Temple and the Altar of Land and Grain, two sacrificial complexes, sit opposite each other, adding a sense of balance to the overall layout. The straight, broad avenues and symmetrically arranged buildings create a majestic and well-ordered landscape. As the highest point in this section, Jingshan Hill offers the best vantage point to view the city to both the north and the south.

The southern-central section lies at the heart of the Central Axis. It comprises Tiananmen Gate, the Outer Jinshui Bridges, and the Tiananmen Square Complex, which includes the square itself, the Monument to the People's Heroes, the Chairman Mao Memorial Hall, the Great Hall of the People, and the National Museum of China. This area has served as an important ceremonial space from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the present day. Tiananmen Gate was an important part of the imperial court space in the Ming and Qing periods. Together with the Outer Jinshui Bridges, it served as the place for issuing imperial pronouncements. Today, it remains a venue for major state events.

The southern section of the Central Axis stretches from Zhengyangmen Gate to Yongdingmen Gate, passing along the remains of ancient roads. This section is flanked by two major sacrificial complexes: the Temple of Heaven and the Altar of the God of Agriculture. The remains of the central roads run directly southward from the imposing Zhengyangmen Gate and Archery Tower to Yongdingmen Gate. The core area for imperial ritual activities during the Ming and Qing dynasties sits to the south of Zhengyangmen. Here, the two major sacrificial complexes occupy spacious grounds densely planted with trees. Majestic ancient cypresses surround the imposing ritual structures, creating a landscape that blends natural beauty with an air of solemnity. The remains of ancient central axis roads in this section provide physical evidence of the route that was taken for state ceremonies and rituals during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Archaeological excavations at three representative road sites have shed light on the historical evolution of these roads.

Throughout all stages of urban development, the overall layout and architectural order of the Beijing Central Axis have been respected and preserved, ensuring the enduring vitality of the Central Axis. At the same time, the Axis has also been continuously developed and carried forward in response to the needs of each era. As a testament to the remarkable achievements of Chinese civilization, it highlights the profound influence that the traditional planning concept of the central axis has had on urban development in China.

An important symbol of the distinctive  features of Chinese civilization

Beijing Central Axis served as the heart of the capital city during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties and in modern China. The planning, construction, and refinement of the Central Axis encapsulate the ideals of Chinese civilization in pursuing a perfect order in managing a nation, a city, and even daily life. It thus stands as an important symbol of the distinctive features of Chinese civilization. In comparison with the urban axes of other Asian capitals in countries like Japan, South Korea, and Vietnam, Beijing Central Axis is distinguished by its grand scale, excellent state of preservation, and its significant and enduring role in guiding Beijing's urban planning and layout. When compared to the urban axes of political centers in other parts of the world, such as Washington D.C. in the US, Paris in France, and Rome in Italy, Beijing Central Axis embodies traditional Chinese concepts of capital planning, ceremonial culture, and philosophical thought. With its unique structure and landscape, it stands alone in the history of world cities and represents an important contribution to the global history of urban planning.

A powerful testimony to the philosophy of "neutrality and harmony" prized in the Chinese tradition

According to this philosophy, "neutrality" refers to the need for both evenness and proportion, ensuring that there is neither excess nor deficiency. "Harmony, meanwhile, stands for equilibrium, order, and stability. When applied in site selection, urban planning, and architectural design, the philosophy of "neutrality and harmony" is manifested in the pursuit of a layout that emphasizes the principles of respecting centrality and ensuring balance and symmetry. In ancient Chinese texts, the principle of choosing the center was closely linked with the idea of ensuring harmony between heaven, earth, and all beings, as well as the stability of the nation and society. 

As the capital's core architectural ensemble, Beijing Central Axis, through its central location and symmetry, symbolized and reinforced the primacy of state power and the importance of ceremonial order. In addition, ancient Chinese cities and buildings were also typically seated in the north while facing south. This north-south orientation, along with the principle of choosing the center, has jointly shaped the overall layout of the central axes for China's various capitals. The architectural ensemble of Beijing Central Axis is symmetrically arranged both along and on the Axis itself. It reflects an enduring and consistent planning philosophy and sense of order that permeate every aspect, from site selection to architectural design. It also embodies China's age-old pursuit of cultivating social harmony and stability through urban planning.

National memorial structures lie at the heart of the Tiananmen Square Complex. The National Museum of China on the east and the Great Hall of the People on the west correspond to the placement of the Imperial Ancestral Temple and the Altar of Land and Grain, respectively. This arrangement not only embodies the philosophy of centrality and harmony but also upholds the tradition of placing the ancestral temple on the left and the altar for the god of land and grain on the right. Such a design reflects the enduring respect for the people and contemporary society in China and also ensures the integrity of the outstanding values encapsulated in the Central Axis in the present era. 

A physical representation of China's unique architectural aesthetics and artistic sensibilities

Beijing Central Axis presents an imposing and orderly spatial form. Yet, within this harmonious and ordered whole, there is both contrast and change. The result is a spatial experience that is rich in rhythmic variation, incorporating elements of ancient Chinese ritual and music systems. The different segments of the Central Axis are characterized by strict proportional relationships. The inner city section, for example, is divided into three equal segments: from the Bell Tower to the north gate of Jingshan, from there to the Meridian Gate of the Forbidden City, and finally to the Zhengyangmen Archery Tower. The length of each segment is roughly equal to the distance from the front of the Forbidden City to the back of Jingshan Park—essentially the total depth of the palace complex and its adjoining gardens. Traditional ideas regarding layout and dimensions were also adhered to during the planning and design of Tiananmen Square. These proportional relationships create an intrinsic connection between the Central Axis and the dimensions of the palace complex. They also foster cadence between key nodes along the Axis, ensuring unity between the individual  parts and the overall whole. This enables the seamless integration of historical and modern urban spaces. The architectural forms along Beijing Central Axis and on either side adhere to a strict hierarchical and institutional framework. This framework employs a systematic design language to express differences in location, function, and intended users. These distinctions are manifested in various aspects of the buildings, including their platforms, main structures, roofs, materials, colors, and decorative elements. Embedding hierarchical distinctions within the internal order also contributed to the development of the Axis as a cohesive whole.

Within the ancient imperial palace complex, the Hall of Supreme Harmony stands atop a three-tiered white marble platform known as a sumeru pedestal. The hall features a double-eave hip roof adorned with yellow glazed tiles, signifying its supreme architectural status. It served as one of the most important ceremonial spaces within the imperial city. Of the ancient urban management structures, Tiananmen Gate functioned as the main gate to the imperial city during the Ming and Qing dynasties. As an important ceremonial symbol, it has the highest architectural rank of all the city gates in Beijing, featuring a double-eave hip-and-gable roof. The Bell and Drum Towers, meanwhile, both stand atop elevated platforms. The roof of the Bell Tower features black glazed tiles with green trim, while that of the Drum Tower is covered in gray cylindrical tiles, also with green trim. These styles clearly distinguish the structures from imperial buildings. The four sacrificial structures are arranged on either side of the Central Axis in a symmetrical layout. While sharing certain similarities, they also exhibit subtle differences, reflecting their specific meaning, function, and importance within the imperial system. 

In the ancient Chinese tradition, ancestral worship was conducted in temples, while natural deities were venerated on elevated platforms. To highlight the importance of ancestral worship, the dimensions and materials used for the construction of the Sacrificial Hall in the Imperial Ancestral Temple were on a par with those of the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City, representing the highest rank of official architecture from the Ming and Qing dynasties. The altars used for worshipping natural deities, such as the Altar of Land and Grain, the Circular Mound Altar in the Temple of Heaven, and the Altar of the God of Agriculture, are all elevated open-air platforms. Of these, the Circular Mound Altar in the Temple of Heaven is the largest structure. Its circular design symbolizes "Heaven," in line with the ancient belief of "round Heaven and square Earth." In contrast, the Altar of Land and Grain takes a square shape. Its surface is adorned with five different colors of soil, which were collected as tribute from across the nation. The soil symbolizes the territory of the country, while its five colors represent the Five Elements, believed to be the basis of all existence in traditional Chinese culture. 

A partial bird's-eye view of Beijing Central Axis. The Central Axis connects grand ceremonial sites with vibrant commercial areas, creating a cityscape defined by a sense of rhythm and order. Featuring an undulating north-south profile and symmetrical east-west layout, it offers a prime example of the traditional central axis of a Chinese capital in the mature stage. BEIJING CENTRAL AXIS WORLD HERITAGE APPLICATION AND CONSERVATION OFFICE

Through its unique layout, architectural forms, and varied designs in scale and color, the architectural ensemble of Beijing Central Axis creates distinct yet harmonious spatial experiences across its different sections. The undulating landscape unfolds from north to south, with each segment featuring its own distinctive qualities. Together, they create a spatial composition that is both striking and well-ordered. In addition, the traditional color scheme of red walls, golden-yellow roofs, jade-green tiles, gray courtyards, and muted city walls also evokes a uniquely Chinese aesthetic. Notably, the Tiananmen Square Complex represents a harmonious blend of Chinese and Western architectural traditions. It combines traditional Chinese techniques and styles with a variety of other styles, including elements of ancient Roman design. 

A unique testament to enduring national ceremonial traditions

Throughout China's long history, ritual and ceremonial activities have held a crucial place in the fabric of social life. Beijing Central Axis exemplifies the emphasis placed on ceremonial order in traditional Chinese capital planning and construction. The Central Axis connects state ceremonial and ritual spaces with the various urban facilities needed by ordinary people in their daily lives, demonstrating the rich and diverse cultural traditions of Beijing's old city. The imperial palaces and gardens along Beijing Central Axis, as well as the sacrificial structures flanking both sides, were meticulously planned and constructed in accordance with the etiquette system. The Forbidden City served not only as the residence and court of Ming and Qing emperors but also the venue for the highest level of rituals, such as the enthronement of the emperor, as well as the starting point for ritual activities outside the imperial palaces, creating a ritual space along the Central Axis that was connected by central thoroughfares and consisted of the imperial palaces, gardens, and sacrificial buildings.

In the Ming and Qing dynasties, ritual activities were closely tied to the four seasons and major state events. Ceremonies were governed by rigorous protocols that dictated every aspect, from procession routes to the orientation of ceremonies, the timing of procedural steps, and the roles of participants. The emperor typically presided over major ceremonial rites in person. Rituals commenced at the Hall of Supreme Harmony and proceeded southward through the Meridian Gate and along the central roads. After the PRC's founding, the Tiananmen Square Complex was turned into a public venue for national ceremonies, thus carrying forward the traditional role of the Central Axis in state ceremonial occasions.

Beijing Central Axis also featured urban management functions closely related to the daily lives of city residents. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Bell and Drum Towers governed the daily rhythms of urban life by marking time through the striking of the bell and drums. During these periods, Tiananmen Gate, Zhengyangmen Gate, and Yongdingmen Gate served as the main gates to the imperial, inner, and outer cities, respectively. These gates were vital nodes in the urban management system, opening and closing at prescribed times signaled by the sound of the bell and drums, thus regulating the daily routines and movements of residents. Over time, the Bell and Drum Towers and the city gates along the Axis were gradually opened to the public, offering visitors vantage points to survey the meticulously ordered cityscape and skyline of the Central Axis. 

Beijing Central Axis is the result of more than seven centuries of accumulation and refinement. It has absorbed the planning concepts and practical achievements of previous dynasties and carried forward the ancient tradition of regarding the central axis as the foundational line for city planning and design. At the same time, it has also integrated new elements and acquired new connotations in response to changes in Beijing's natural geography and socio-cultural environment. This evolution highlights both the remarkable continuity and creativity of Chinese civilization. The Axis was preserved and developed over the course of three dynasties—the Yuan, Ming, and Qing—each established by a different ethnic group. It is a testament to the coexistence of Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and various deist beliefs relating to agriculture, while also embodying the pursuit of peace, amity, and harmony. As such, it serves as a concentrated manifestation of Chinese civilization's remarkable unity, inclusiveness, and peaceful nature. 

The inscription of Beijing Central Axis on the World Heritage List will help showcase both ancient and modern China to the world in a comprehensive and genuine way. It will help garner recognition around the world for China's progress in building a modern civilization and for the tremendous vitality of its fine traditional culture. It will also provide a boost to socialist cultural-ethical advancement in China as well as powerful inspiration for the drive to build a great country and advance national rejuvenation through Chinese modernization. 

The protection and management of Beijing Central Axis

On February 25, 2014, during a tour of Beijing, President Xi Jinping remarked, "Historical culture represents the soul of a city. We must protect our urban historical and cultural heritage with the same devotion we give to safeguarding our own lives. Beijing is an ancient capital of world renown, and its rich historical and cultural heritage serves as its signature feature. Preserving and safeguarding this invaluable legacy is the responsibility of the capital city. With a sense of duty to both history and the people, we must carry forward our historical inheritance, carefully balancing urban renewal and development with the protection and utilization of heritage. We must earnestly work to realize development through conservation and ensure conservation amid development."

In 2012, the National Cultural Heritage Administration added Beijing Central Axis to China's Tentative List for World Cultural Heritage Sites. During the process of applying for World Heritage status, major efforts were made to ensure the protection of Beijing's historical and cultural heritage. The Regulations on the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage of Beijing Central Axis and the Conservation and Management Plan for Beijing Central Axis (2022– 2035) were published and implemented. A management system for coordinating the efforts of the central and local governments and different departments was established. The Three-Year Action Plan for the Conservation of Beijing Central Axis was implemented, and a number of important cultural relics and buildings, such as Zhengyangmen, the Imperial Ancestral Temple, and the Drum Tower, underwent restoration. Urban archaeological excavations yielded new discoveries at sites such as Zhengyang Bridge and the remains of original central axis roads. Systems for heritage value presentation and monitoring and early warning were also put into place. These efforts have played a crucial role in preserving the historical layout, overall character, and cultural heritage of Beijing's old city. Throughout this process, we remained committed to a people-centered approach. This saw us placing an emphasis on public participation in heritage conservation efforts and on the improvement of  people's wellbeing, thus ensuring that the benefits of historical and cultural heritage conservation are widely shared among the public. 

During the journey toward World Heritage status, we gained many valuable experiences and insights, including the following. 

First, it is important to place emphasis on theoretical guidance and remain committed to the guidance of Xi Jinping's thinking on culture over our practical endeavors. By fully implementing the guiding principles from a series of President Xi's important speeches and instructions, we were able to proactively navigate the complex and evolving international landscape. This ensured our success in securing the inclusion of all heritage elements of Beijing Central Axis on the UNESCO World Heritage List. 

Second, we should make protection the top priority and carry out high-quality conservation and restoration of cultural artifacts and historic sites. Throughout the process, we consistently regarded the preservation of cultural artifacts and historic sites as the cornerstone of our work. By fully leveraging Beijing's quality supervision mechanism for cultural artifact projects, we steadily improved the conditions for preserving cultural artifacts. These efforts were highly commended by international organizations.

Third, greater efforts should be made to interpret and carry forward our cultural heritage, refine the value presentation system, and diversify presentation methods. We developed a cohesive heritage value presentation system, featuring comprehensive exhibitions as the mainstay and supplemented by on-site interpretive signage and specialized displays at individual sites. We also implemented a monitoring and early warning system for Beijing Central Axis, along with a digital presentation platform. These measures substantially improved our capacity for heritage conservation and presentation. 

Fourth, we should enhance coordination between the central and local governments and improve heritage conservation and management systems and mechanisms. Together with the Beijing government, the National Cultural Heritage Administration carried out explorations to establish a working mechanism featuring high-level coordination, central-local collaboration, and joint management, thereby creating powerful synergy for the efforts to preserve Beijing Central Axis and support its World Heritage nomination. In addition, we jointly completed conservation and improvement work on all 15 heritage components, along with associated heritage areas and buffer zones. We also pushed forward reforms to the management system for centrally-administered cultural artifacts. These initiatives have helped usher in a new phase of comprehensive conservation for Beijing's old city.

Fifth, it is important to encourage public participation to consolidate the social foundation for cultural heritage conservation and preservation. We integrated heritage conservation efforts with initiatives to revitalize neighborhoods and improve resident living environments. Innovative mechanisms were also introduced to involve the public in cultural heritage conservation. In doing so, we gradually developed and refined a comprehensive heritage conversation system that engages residents, communities, and diverse social sectors.

Sixth, it is necessary to foster international consensus and cultivate understanding and support through extensive communication. We effectively carried out multilateral and bilateral initiatives in order to steadily strengthen cooperation and deepen consensus. We actively worked to win international recognition and support for the Outstanding Universal Value of Beijing Central Axis. These efforts laid a solid foundation for the successful nomination of the Central Axis.

(Originally appeared in Qiushi Journal, Chinese edition, No. 16, 2024)